The New Economic Policy

At the end of the Civil War, the Bolsheviks controlled most cities, but 80% of the Russian population were peasants. There were food shortages and unrest about the new communist forced policies.

In response, Soviet leader Vladimir Lenin introduced his New Economic Policy (NEP) in 1921. The NEP aimed to revive the Soviet economy by introducing a mixed system of state control and private enterprise. It allowed small-scale private businesses, particularly in agriculture and light industry. The government also allowed the return of private trade and the use of money, which had been abolished during the civil war.

The NEP was somewhat successful in reviving the Soviet economy. Agriculture and industrial production increased, and the standard of living improved for many. It marked a shift away from the radical earlier Bolshevik policies and helped stabilize the economy and stop a counter revolution.

The March on Rome

The March on Rome was a planned insurrection by Benito Mussolini and his fascist followers in October 1922 that turned into a coup d’état.

Mussolini gathered his Italian fascists and their militia known as the “Blackshirts” in Milan and instructed them to march to Rome and demand that the government give him power.

Mussolini himself did not want to march and arrived in Rome the next day. The government, headed by Prime Minister Luigi Facta, was weak and in disarray at the time, and unable to put down the mass protest.

As a result, King Victor Emmanuel III asked Mussolini to form a government, and he became the Prime Minister of Italy on October 29, 1922. This began Italy’s fascist era which lasted until 1943.

The Beer Hall Putsch

The Beer Hall Putsch was an attempted coup d’état in Germany in 1923. It was led by Adolf Hitler, the leader of the Nazi Party and took place at Munich’s Odeonsplatz, or central square.

The Beer Hall Putsch was sparked by Hitler’s desire to overthrow the democratically elected government of Germany and establish a dictatorship. On November 8, 1923, Hitler and about 2,000 followers, mostly Nazis and extreme right-wing nationalists, attempted to seize control of the government by marching on the Odeonsplatz.

The coup was quickly put down by the police and the army, and Hitler and his followers were arrested. Hitler escaped but was arrested 2 days later.

Despite the failure of the Beer Hall Putsch, it was a significant event in the rise of Hitler and the Nazi Party. The attempted coup helped to increase Hitler’s prominence and attract new followers to the party. His trial lasted 24 days and gave him a platform to spew his nationalist beliefs.

Hitler was found guilty of treason and sentenced to 5 years in prison. The Nazis portrayed him as a martyr in their propaganda and he was released after only serving 9 months.

Stalin Takes Power

Vladimir Lenin was the founder and leader of Soviet Union since the Russian civil war began in 1917. He suffered a stroke in 1922, after which Joseph Stalin took on many of his duties.

Lenin died in January 1924 and a power struggle ensued for who would take over. Stalin outmaneuvered his rivals and gained control of the Communist Party. He was then officially hailed as Lenin’s successor as the leader of the Communist Party and Soviet Union.

Stalin used his position to appoint loyal followers to key positions in government and to remove his rivals from power. Eventually, he would become a dictator.

Mein Kampf Published

While in prison after the failed Beer Hall Putsch, Adolf Hitler began writing a book on his vision for Germany. Published in 1925 and titled Mein Kampf, the book outlines Hitler’s political ideology. It includes his racist and antisemitic beliefs, his ideas on German nationalism, his foreign policy goals, and his plan to establish a totalitarian state.

The book played a significant role in Hitler’s rise to power. It was used as a propaganda tool by the Nazi Party and helped to spread their depraved ideas and gain support.

Mein Kampf also laid out some of Hitler’s plans for the future, such as the extermination of the Jewish people, the conquest of Eastern Europe, and the creation of a German empire. Many of the policies outlined in the book were later implemented by the Nazi regime during the Holocaust and World War 2, resulting in the deaths of millions of people.

Stalin’s Five Year Plan

In 1928, the Soviet Union was a poor, agricultural country made up overwhelmingly by peasant farmers. Joseph Stalin wanted to quickly industrialize his nation, so it was capable of resisting Nazi Germany and Western Europe.

That year, he implemented the first Five Year Plan with the goal of rapidly industrializing and modernizing the Soviet economy. The plan emphasized heavy industry, such as steel and coal production, and collectivization of agriculture.

Collectivization involved combining smaller farms into larger, state-controlled collective farms. Centuries-old systems of farming were destroyed, and many people resisted. Still, millions left their farms for new industrial jobs in cities.

While Stalin’s plan was successful in increasing industrial production, it led to widespread shortages of food and consumer goods and the repression of any who protested.

Japan Invades Manchuria

Japan had few of the natural resources needed for industrialization. It needed to import coal and iron ore from Manchuria, a region in China, just north of Korea and west of Japan. It had a railroad there to facilitate these exports dating back to the Russo-Japanese War.

Japan’s Kwantung Army was stationed there to protect the railway, but it had the government’s permission to retaliate if the Chinese ever attacked any Japanese property.

In September 1931, a dynamite exploded along the railway. The army immediately blamed China and attacked. Japanese troops began occupying towns in the area and gained control of Manchuria within 5 months.

The League of Nations investigated the incident and determined that the Japanese army set off the dynamite as a “false flag” event and excuse to attack and conquer Manchuria. In response, Japan withdrew from the League of Nations.

The invasion allowed Japan to expand its empire, gain control of the region’s coal and iron mines, and stimulate its struggling economy. It also created a buffer zone between Japan and the Soviet Union, which was viewed as a potential threat to Japanese security.

The May 15th Incident

A group of extremist officers in Japan’s Imperial Navy strongly objected to Japan agreeing to several international arms limitation treaties. They believed Prime Minister Inukai Tsuyoshi was too moderate and insufficiently nationalistic.

Several of the officers had connections to the ultra-right wing nationalist group League of Blood. The League of Blood attempted a coup d’état in March 1932 but failed. The naval officers planned another coup for May 1932 in hopes of overthrowing the government.

They believed the government’s response to the global economic crisis was inadequate and that Japan’s foreign policy was too weak. Inukai’s government had been reducing military spending and strengthening democratic institutions, which was at odds with the military’s vision of a stronger, more militarized Japan.

On May 15, 1932, the officers assassinated Prime Minister Inukai in his home. They also hoped to assassinate movie star Charlie Chaplin (who was in Japan at the time) in hopes of sparking a war with the U.S.

The officers who murdered the Prime Minister used their trial as a platform for their beliefs. Much of the public sympathized with them and they were only court martialed. This helped erode the rule of law in Japan and increased the military’s power and influence in government.

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