World Empires & Rulers Around 1500
In addition to being a nice round number, the year 1500 also saw the globe the most interconnected it had ever been up until that moment in history. While it had been nearly 500 years since the Vikings reached North America, new European expeditions across the oceans were connecting Europe's powers to other civilizations for the first time.
Additionally, major trade routes like the Silk Road and Gold-Salt Trade connected rich and powerful empires across Asia, Africa, and the Middle East. Civilizations and empires across the globe interacted through trade and conflict.
Some of the most powerful rulers in history also led empires during this period. Below are 10 of these rulers. Not all of them lived exactly during the year 1500, but close enough to it that we can look at them as a whole and better understand how the world looked during this era.
Askia Muhammad I (also known as Askia the Great) was born in 1443 and ruled the Songhai Empire from 1493 to 1528. Sonni Ali, the first king of the Songhai Empire, died in 1492. His son Sonni Baru succeeded him to the throne but was not seen as a true Muslim by many and too weak to rule.
Askia Muhammad was a leading general and defeated Sonni Bar's larger force at the Battle of Anfao in 1493. He then became the first ruler of the Askia Dynasty. As ruler, he strengthened the empire and made it into the largest in West Africa's history.
Despite being a skilled general, Askia was more of a statesman. He reorganized the government to be more efficient over the vast region. The Songhai Empire reached its peak under his reign and extended across much of northwest Africa.
Askia began several new policies that resulted in a rapid expansion of trade with empires in both Europe and Asia. He established Islam as an integral part of his empire and also encouraged the building of schools for his people. Askia also established standardized trade measures and regulations, initiated the policing of trade routes, and established an organized tax system across his empire.
He was overthrown by his eldest son, Askia Musa, in 1528 and banished to an island. While there, his son fought with the rest of his family over power. After Askia Musa was killed by a different brother, Askia Muhammad was invited back to the kingdom where he was honored before dying in 1538.
Atahualpa was the last Sapa Inca (sovereign emperor) of the Incan Empire. The Inca had ruled the region around the Andes Mountains in South America for several hundred years and spent most of that time conquering neighboring civilizations. They were based in the city-state of Cusco, but eventually stretched the empire across 2,000 miles of the Pacific Coast and included 12 million people.
After Atahualpa's father Huayna Capac died in 1527, his two sons fought over who would take the throne. Huáscar began the conflict because he saw his brother Atahualpa as competition. Many battles were fought over the next several years until Atahualpa emerged victorious in 1532.
As Sapa Inca, Atahualpa's rule was absolute. His officials (including the tokoyrikoq: "He-Who-Sees-Everything") traveled Incan Empire to ensure laws were obeyed and taxes were paid. His rule was a short one, however. Not long after the civil war, the new king encountered the Spanish conquistador Francisco Pizarro.
Pizarro had received permission from the Queen of Spain to conquer the Inca after learning of their great wealth. In a surprise attack, he captured Atahualpa in November 1532 and used him to control the Inca Empire. Atahualpa offered to fill a room with gold as a ransom for his release. Pizarro accepted the offer and gold and silver statues and jewelry were brought from across the Incan Empire. The Spaniards had it all melted into ingots totaling 24 tons of gold and silver, the richest ransom ever received. Once the full amount was acquired, the Spanish executed Atahualpa, effectively ending the largest empire in pre-Columbian America.
Mehmed the Conqueror was the 7th sultan of the Ottoman Empire. He first took power at just 12-years-old when his father Murad II handed him the throne in 1444. When invaders threated the empire, he wrote to his father, "If you are the sultan, come and lead your armies. If I am the sultan I hereby order you to come and lead my armies."
His father returned to power and the invaders were defeated. Mehmed II then acted as a local governor for the next few years. However, when his father died in 1451, Mehmed reclaimed the throne and ruled until his death in 1481.
After ascending to the throne, he strengthened the Ottoman navy and made preparations to attack Constantinople. At the age of 21, he conquered Constantinople and brought an end to the Byzantine Empire which had lasted for close to 1,000 years.
After the conquest, Mehmed claimed the title "Caesar" of the Roman Empire based on the fact that Constantinople had been the capital of the Eastern Roman Empire since 330 CE. He continued his conquests in Anatolia and in Southeast Europe. After victories in the Balkans, he sent the Ottoman army to invade Italy in a new attempt at founding a world empire. However, he died the following year and his armies withdrew.
At home he made political and social reforms, encouraged the arts and sciences, and led a rebuilding program in Constantinople of mosques and colleges. During his reign, mathematics, astronomy, and theology reached their highest level among the Ottomans.
Ivan III, also known as Ivan the Great, was a Grand Prince of Moscow and ruler in Russia. He was the first Russian ruler to call himself "Tsar" (also spelled Czar), although it was not yet an official title during his reign. His 43-year reign was one of the longest in Russian history.
Ivan's father Vasily II led Russia through a civil war after which Ivan served as the co-ruler from the mid-1450s before he officially ascended the throne in 1462. After taking the throne, Ivan greatly increased the size of his territory through war and through the seizure of lands from his relatives. He had four brothers but refused to share his conquests with them, resulting in several conflicts which brought more territory under his control.
Perhaps Ivan's greatest feat was ending the dominance of the Tatars over Russia. Prior to this, Moscow was the capital of a small state which paid tribute to the Mongol Golden Horde (knows as the Tatars in Russia) masters of an area stretching from eastern Europe to Siberia. Ivan's His victory over the Mongol Great Horde in 1480 is cited as the restoration of Russian independence 240 years after the fall of Kiev to a Mongol invasion.
An impressive building program in Moscow took place under his rule. New buildings were erected in the Kremlin, and the Kremlin walls were strengthened and furnished with towers and gates. In 1475, Ivan III established the first cannon foundry of Russia in Moscow, which started the native cannon production. He also introduced a new legal codex and laid the foundations of the Russian state before his death in 1505.
Queen Isabella and King Ferdinand II are known as the Catholic Monarchs of Spain. It was their marriage in 1469 that helped to unify Spain. They were second cousins, both descended from King John I of Castile. They ruled together until Isabella's death in 1504. Ferdinand served as the sole king of Spain until his death in 1516.
The monarchs led a 10 year war against the Islamic Emirate of Granada which ended with the defeat of Granada, ending all Islamic rule on the Iberian Peninsula. Following this, Isabella and Ferdinand pursued further policies of religious unification in their realm, in particular the expulsion of Jews who refused to convert to Christianity. Spanish Muslims were also later forced to convert or face expulsion from Spain.
The Spanish Inquisition was also established by the monarchs to reinforce Catholicism in Spain by identifying heretics. Its brutal methods of torture led to widespread suffering and death, but helped to consolidate power for the monarchy.
Ferdinand and Isabella also financed voyages of exploration, most notably Columbus expeditions to the New World beginning in 1492. The conquests of Columbus and later conquistadors generated an influx of wealth into Spain, leading it to be the major power in Europe.
Henry VIII was King of England from 1509 until his death in 1547. He is best known for his six marriages, which were mostly due to his desire for a male heir to serve after him and continue the Tudor family line.
He first sought to annul his first marriage (to Catherine of Aragon) so that he could marry the younger Anne Boleyn. The Pope refused to allow such an annulment. This led Henry to initiate the English Reformation, separating the Church of England from the Pope's authority. He appointed himself Supreme Head of the Church of England and dissolved convents and monasteries, for which he was excommunicated.
This greatly increased his power in England and reinforced his theory of the divine right of kings. He frequently used charges of treason and heresy to quell dissent, and those accused were often executed without a trial. Henry is also known as "the father of the Royal Navy," as he invested heavily in the navy, increasing its size from a few ships to more than 50.
He also converted the money that was formerly paid to Rome into royal revenue. Despite this, he was continually on the verge of financial ruin due to several costly and unsuccessful wars, particularly with France, Scotland, and the Holy Roman Empire.
Of his 6 marriages, two ended in annulment, two with his wives’ beheadings for adultery and treason (though these charges are doubted by many), and two in natural deaths. He had three "legitimate" children: Edward VI, Mary I and Elizabeth I, each of whom succeeded him as monarchs of England.
Moctezuma II was the ninth Tlatoani (Emperor) of Tenochtitlan and the sixth Huey Tlatoani (Great Emperor) of the Aztec Empire. He reigned from 1502 to 1520. The first contact between the indigenous civilizations of Mesoamerica and Europeans took place during his reign.
Unlike most emperors, Moctezuma did not inherit his rule. A council of 30 elders selected him because he was a prince in the royal family, relatively young, understood politics, and had distinguished himself in battle.
Politically, he prohibited commoners from serving in his palace or in high positions of government. This was contrary to the policies of his predecessors, who allowed commoners to serve.
During his reign, the Aztec Empire reached its greatest size. Through warfare, Moctezuma expanded Aztec territory far to the south and incorporated the Zapotec and Yopi people into the empire. Multiple rebellions in his empire were suppressed through force and with violent results. Prisoners taken were later enslaved or used for human sacrifice.
The Aztecs were bitter rivals with the nearby state of Tlaxcala, with whom they fought constantly. As a result, when Spanish conquistadors arrived the Tlaxcala were eager to exact revenge, and became loyal allies of the Spanish. They combined forces to defeat the Aztecs and conquer their capital of Tenochtitlan in 1521.
Moctezuma was killed during the initial stages of the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire, when conquistador Hernán Cortés and his men fought to take over the Aztec capital Tenochtitlan. Two other Aztec rulers succeeded Moctezuma after his death, but their reigns were short-lived and the empire quickly collapsed under them.
Abbas the Great was the 5th Safavid Shah (king) of Iran and is generally considered one of the greatest rulers of Iranian history and the Safavid Empire. He ruled from 1588 to 1629.
Abbas' father Shah Mohammed was an ineffective ruler and unable to stop the archrival the Ottoman Empire or the nearby Uzbeks from invading the country. In 1588, a military leader overthrew him and placed the 17-year-old Abbas on the throne. It was intended for Abbas to be a figurehead, however, Abbas seized power for himself.
Abbas knew he could not fight both the Ottomans and Uzbeks at once, so he signed a treaty with the Ottomans and sought to focus on defeating the Uzbeks. He created a new standing army which took years to develop. Eventually, Abbas was able to fight back against the outside forces that harassed his nation.
In 1598 he defeated the Uzbeks and regained lost territory. He then turned his sights to the Ottomans and eventually recovered the territory lost to them. He also took back land from the Portuguese and the Mughal Empire of India and expanded Iranian rule and influence in the region. Under his rule, there was unusual religious tolerance for the region, with privileges to Christian groups.
Abbas was a great builder and moved his kingdom's capital from Qazvin to Isfahan, making the city the pinnacle of Safavid architecture. Under his patronage, carpet weaving became a major industry, and fine Persian rugs became a sought after item for wealthy Europeans.
Akbar the Great was the third Mughal emperor of India, and reigned from 1556 to 1605 and is generally considered the greatest of the Mughal emperors in India.
Akbar first took power at just 14-years-old when he was proclaimed Shahanshah ("King of Kings"), however, a regent made most of the decisions until Akbar came of age. After taking power, Akbar displayed a strong personality and was a successful general.
Through conquest, he gradually enlarged the Mughal Empire to include much of the Indian subcontinent. During his rule, the Mughal Empire tripled in size and wealth.
To unify his vast state, Akbar established a centralized system of administration throughout the empire and adopted a policy of appealing to conquered rulers through marriage and diplomacy. To preserve peace and order in a diverse empire, he abolished a tax on non-Muslims and appointed them to high civil and military posts, winning won him their support.
Mughal India developed a strong and stable economy, leading to commercial expansion and greater patronage of culture. Akbar himself was a patron of art and culture. He was fond of literature, and created a library of over 24,000 volumes written in many of the known languages. He also established the library of Fatehpur Sikri exclusively for women, and he decreed that schools for the education of both Muslims and Hindus should be established throughout the realm.
Akbar's reign significantly influenced the course of Indian history. He participated in native festivals, realizing that a stable empire depended on the co-operation and goodwill of his subjects. Thus, the foundations for a multicultural empire under Mughal rule were laid during his reign. Akbar was succeeded as emperor by his son, Prince Salim, later known as Jahangir.
The Yongle Emperor (born Zhu Di), was the third emperor of China's Ming Dynasty and he reigned from 1402 to 1424.
Zhu Di was the fourth son of the Hongwu Emperor, the founder of the Ming dynasty. As a young man, he served as a capable commander against the Mongols and was appointed a crown prince. His oldest brother and heir suffered an early death, so when their father died there was a conflict for succession. Zhu Di's nephew took power as the Jianwen Emperor and began executing and demoting his powerful uncles.
Zhu Di decided to rebel against his nephew's rule. Assisted by those mistreated by the Hongwu and Jianwen Emperors, who both favored Confucian scholar-bureaucrats, Zhu Di overthrew his nephew and occupied the imperial capital, Nanjing. He was proclaimed emperor and adopted the era name Yongle, which means "perpetual happiness".
Eager to establish his own legitimacy, Zhu Di voided the Jianwen Emperor's reign and established a wide-ranging effort to destroy or falsify records concerning his childhood and rebellion. He moved the capital to Beijing and directed the construction a massive network in which government offices, officials, and the imperial family resided. After 14 years under construction, the Forbidden City was completed and became the imperial capital for the next 500 years.
The Yongle Emperor wanted to expand Chinese influence throughout the known world. He sponsored massive treasure voyages led by admiral Zheng He into the South Pacific and Indian Oceans. Zheng He's seven expeditions were China's only major sea-going explorations of the world.
Mongol invaders were still causing many problems for the Ming Empire. The Yongle Emperor wanted to eliminate this threat. He mounted five military expeditions into the Mongol steppes and crushed the remnants of the Yuan dynasty. However, in 1424, the Yongle Emperor died while personally leading a military campaign against the Mongols.
